Boundary Commission (Radcliff Award)
Background
The partition plan of June 3, 1947, under the Indian Independence Act, the
division of Punjab and Bengal which made it necessary to set up a Boundary
Commission to demarcate the boundaries of the parts of each of these provinces
into Hindu and Muslim majority districts, to be assigned to India and Pakistan,
respectively.
Role of Radcliff
The Kashmir dispute will remain incomplete unless the vital role played by Sir
Cyril Radcliff, apparently at Mountbatten’s behest, is recalled.
Incontrovertible evidence is available that Mountbatten was very keen to see
that the whole Gurdaspur district, which had a Muslim majority, should not be
assigned to Pakistan. Mountbatten’s strategy was that Punjab may be divided in
such a manner that the state of Jammu and Kashmir could join either India or
Pakistan.
Members
The Partition committee proposed that Sir Cyrill Radcliffe should be invited to
serve as chairman of the Punjab and Bengal Boundary Commission. Radcliffe was a
renowned barrister who came from England. The League and Congress nominated two
High Court judges.
Controversy in the division of Punjab
In the division of Punjab, the award was unfair and awarded several Muslim-majority areas to India. In the Gurdaspur district, two contiguous Muslim
majority Tehsils of Gurdaspur and Batala were given to India along with
Pathankot tehsil to provide a link between India and the State of Jammu and
Kashmir. The Muslim-majority tehsil Ajnala in the Amritsar district was also
handed over to India. In Jullundur district the Muslim majority areas of Zira
and Ferozepur district were also given to India.
Controversy in the division of Bengal
Similarly, in Bengal, the most important question related to the future of
Calcutta. It was the capital of the province. Although the Muslims formed only
a quarter of the population of Calcutta, a large section of its population
consisted of scheduled castes that were allied with the Muslim League. In any
case, for more than two hundred years the Muslims of Bengal had contributed to
making Calcutta what it was in 1947 a centre of commerce and industry.
The city of Calcutta, the capital of the province, was the biggest industrial,
commercial and educational centre. The entire development of Calcutta was based
on the toil of the Muslim peasantry of Bengal. East Bengal produced most of the
raw material which had to be sent to Calcutta because all factories and mills
were in Calcutta. The Congress leaders were determined to get Calcutta by all
foul or fair means. Eventually, Calcutta was awarded to India ignoring the
claim of the Muslims.
The Problems of the New State:
The attainment of independence brought an end to one phase of the struggle and
marked the beginning of a new one for setting up and running a viable, stable
and prosperous state. Pakistan began its independent life under very difficult
and unfavourable circumstances. Pakistan faced serious problems in the initial
stages.
1. New Administration
2. Division of Assets
3. Integration of Princely States
4. Communal Riots and Arrival of Refugees
5. Canal water and trade issues
1: New Administration
The shortage of trained human power especially senior officers was a serious
problem in the setting up of the federal government in Karachi. Most of them
had migrated to India. There was a shortage of office space, equipment and
furniture. This disturbed the direct connections between the federal government
and provincial governments. On the other hand, the provincial governments were
overburdened and needed a very accurate connection between the centre and the
provinces to solve the problems of the Muslim refugees who had nothing to eat,
drink, wear, rest, etc. To counter the critical situation, the official system
should have been efficient but due to the lack of all these facilities, the
administrative authorities were painfully facing difficulties.
2: Division of Assets
The Indian government was not cooperative in the transfer of records and
equipment to Pakistan.
The civil administration was not handing over the promised financial, military,
and other shares which created mountainous hurdles to eradicating the pains and
miseries of the refugees.
3:Financial Assets
The full financial share of Pakistan was not transferred. Initially, rupees 200
million were transferred which was not sufficient to meet the expenditures of
the newly born state. The Indian government was so reactionary that it tried
its level best to block these funds to suffocate the newly born Muslim state as
they expected foolishly that Pakistan would collapse and rejoin India soon
after its existence. They did not release the remaining funds until Gandhi’s
threat of marn best (fast until death). Under this pressure, more funds were
sent in early 1948 but no instalment was later paid.
4:Military’s Division
As far as the problem of dividing manpower there was no serious setback because
the division was not in the hands of the third person and Muslims were free to
come to their dreamland, Pakistan. Anyhow, their shifting was slow and
insecure. There were obstacles in Pakistan’s share of weapons, equipment, and
stores. The broken and damaged stuff was sent by India. Pakistan did not get
any ordinance factory. Reorganization of the Armed Forces was another tough job
and there was no army officer up to the rank of colonel. The shortage of
experienced officers convinced British officers to continue their services.
This also accelerated undue promotion in the military services to fill the gap.
3: Integration of Princely States
There were over 560 princely states in India on the verge of the partition of
India. About 500 states had joined India before August 15 because of the
motivation by V. P. Menon and Mountbatten. The princes were inclined to honour
every gesture of the British representative so they conceded what the member of
the Royal family (Mountbatten) wished. The Hindu-British conspiracy blocked
states from joining Pakistan.
Junagadh: It was a small state with access to sea having about 7 lakh
population and a 3377-mile area. The ruler was Muslim while the majority of its
population was Hindu. The ruler decided to accede to Pakistan and Pakistan also
accepted the accession. In November 1947, the Indian troops entered the state
and took control. The referendum favoured India.
Hyderabad Deccan: It was a geographically big and
financially rich state. Its ruler was Muslim and the majority population was
Hindu. It was surrounded by India from all sides. The Nizam wanted to stay
independent. Mountbatten discouraged him and signed the Standstill Agreement. But
India built pressure on the Nizam by sending its troops in September 1948
claiming that serious law and order situation had developed. The state was
integrated into India.
Kashmir: The most important state was Kashmir naturally
connected with Pakistan. Its ruler was Hindu while the population was Muslim.
The population inclined towards Pakistan but the Hindu ruler declared to join
India. The Kashmiri people revolted against the ruler in the Poonch area and soon
it became widespread. The ruler sought Indian support. India demanded
accession. On October 27, 1947, Indian troops landed in Srinagar. The people
continued their struggle for independence and India promised to finally settle
the matter concerning the people under the UN Resolutions.
4: Communal Riots and Refugees:
The Communal riots occurred earlier in August 1946. The killing of Muslims in
Indian areas forced them to leave India. The Sikhs and Hindus attacked the
refugee caravans and trains. There were organized gangs to kill the Muslims.
The refugee problem created a critical condition in the border areas. The
massive migration proved a serious economic and humanitarian problem for the new
state. The military was asked to help cope with the refugee problem.
5: Canal Water Problem
The major rivers flow from Kashmir and some canal heads are located in India. In
1948, India cut off water to some canals that were a serious threat to
agriculture in West Pakistan. The Indian plans to build water storage on the
rivers that are vital for Pakistan’s economy worsened the situation. It also
showed the traditional anti-Muslim attitude. The World Bank settled the problem
in September 1960 (Indus Water Treaty).
6: Trade Problem and the Economy
India devalued its currency in 1949 but Pakistan refused to do so. It stopped
trade that adversely affected Pakistan’s economy as it depended on trade from
India. Pakistan had inherited a weak economy and poor industrial base. The
beginning years of Pakistan were troubled and difficult due to India’s
non-helpful policy and the war in Kashmir. It had a profound impact on
Pakistan’s worldview and its relations with India. Pakistan strived for its
survival and security. Many Indians and the British predicted the collapse of
Pakistan. They thought that very soon the Muslims would realize their blunder.
They would be forced by the circumstances to go back to join India. But
PAKISTAN, by the grace of Almighty Allah, was able to meet the challenge even
with its problems.
Water Dispute: The Indus Basin water dispute had
its basis in the partition of Punjab. It occurred on April 1, 1948, when East
Punjab in India discontinued the flow of cannel waters to West Punjab which
became a huge threat of dearth and loss of crops in West Punjab. West Punjab is
a productive land but a hot and dry climate. There is insufficient rainfall and
unreliable. The main resource of Pakistan’s economy is based on agriculture
which is dependent upon irrigation by canals delivered from the Indus River and
its five tributaries. The three western rivers the Indus, the Jhelum and the Chenab
enter Pakistan from the state of Jammu and Kashmir and the three Eastern
rivers the Ravi, the Beas and the Sutlej flow into Pakistan from India. In
fact, the Indus River system is the source of life in West Punjab and provides
water for more than 26 million acres. Pakistan’s agriculture is dependent upon
these waters. On the other hand, India has a lot of river systems which fall
into the sea without any hindrance and rainfall is also enough to support
agriculture without irrigation.
Partition changed the whole structure of the
subcontinent and created several problems and issues over the water of the Indus
Basin. In 1947, Pakistan came into being and the province of Punjab was divided
into two parts between India and Pakistan. The immediate result of partition
was the Indus Basin division and conflict arose between both countries.
Moreover, the headworks at Madhupur on Ravi and at Ferozpur on the Sutlej were
in India but many of the canals taken off from them were irrigating the
agricultural land of Punjab. Pakistan felt that it was extremely dangerous for
its economy because India could stop water at any time, and its agriculture could
be affected.
To overcome the economic problems, Pakistan
purchased water from India. Many official committees were made to deal with the
problems arising out of the division of Punjab. The question of sharing the
water between India and Pakistan was referred to Committee B. The committee agreed that there was no question of changing the authorized shares of water to
which the two zones and the various canals are allowed. Therefore, this
question was not referred to as an arbitral tribunal selected to settle the
dispute between India and Pakistan arising from the partition. The life of the
tribunal ended on March 31, 1948. After India took control of the headworks it stopped water from flowing in every canal entering Pakistan. So Pakistan
could not complain to the committee. Pakistan was very worried about the
situation. The people of Pakistan criticized this act and it got international
concentration. A delegation was sent to New Delhi for negotiation on a water
dispute by Pakistan. Through the inter-dominion conference which was held in New Delhi
in May 1948, a new agreement was signed called the Delhi Agreement on May 4, 1948.
According to that agreement, East and West Punjab recognized their requirement
to solve the problem through support and alliance. Interdominion conferences
resolve many of the issues and Pakistan planned that the issue be submitted to
the international level, the Court of Justice or the UN Security Council. In
dispute settlement, India refused to involve any third-world country and also said
that an inter-dominion agreement should be made everlasting. Now David
Lilienthal, former chairman of the Tennessee Valley visited the basin area and urged the World Bank to demonstrate its interest in the conflict between India
and Pakistan. Although India criticized the involvement of the World Bank but
continued its negotiation with reservations and after eight months treaty was
signed on Sep 19, 1960, known as the Indus Basin Water Treaty. Pakistan was
represented by President Ayub Khan while Prime Minister Pundit Jawahir Lal
Nehru represented India. According to that agreement Pakistan received
exclusive rights to the three western rivers the Jhelum, the Chenab and the
Indus while India got three eastern rivers the Beas, the Sutlej and the Ravi.
To utilize the water of these rivers, two Dams, five barrages and seven canals
would be built. Apart from the cost to be paid by India the remaining
amount was to be met by Pakistan. This treaty was considered a “well worked out”
treaty and both countries interpreted it differently.
To conclude, this intention of India was not always in
favour of Pakistan and they always tried to exploit Pakistan and destroy its
economy by various instruments and the water dispute was also a part of it. It
was also the result of Pakistan’s intimidation that the supply rivers of
the Indus Basin were in India. Through this treaty, Pakistan overcame its
problems of irrigation to a large extent. Moreover, the foreign policy of
Pakistan was also affected and we had to stabilise our relations with third-world
countries due to repercussions by India.
2.2.5 Issue of Kashmir:
Both countries share an enriched and sound conflict history
on the Kashmir issue. Kashmir with the majority of the Muslim population has a
right to join Pakistan through plebiscites.
1. Both countries fought two wars on Kashmir and still,
relations are deteriorating.
2. Indian atrocities in Kashmir are an eye-opening concern
for all human rights organizations and world powers, who are least bothered
towards Kashmir.
3. Indians call it terrorism once freedom fighters raise their
weapons to get freedom. Although terror is widely spread by the Indian
Army.
4. Justice is not being delivered to the weaker and it is made
just for the strong ones.
5. Pakistan is willing to see an independent Kashmir where
freedom is the right of every individual.
2.2.6 Explain how successful Pakistan was in overcoming the
initial problems?
Immigrants problems:
Quaid-e-Azam established his temporary base in LAHORE,
PUNJAB to resolve the immigrant issue and also opened an account
named Quaid e-Azam Relief Fund for immigrants.
Civil Servants: HBL and Nawab of
Bahawalpur gave Pakistan a grant. The Government Of Pakistan made an
agreement with TATA Airways to bring civil servants.
Kashmir Issue and Water Issues: The Kashmir issue hasn't
been resolved yet, but the water issue was by an agreement between NEHRU and
AYUB named INDUS WATER TREATY.
2.3.1 Role of Muhammad Ali Jinnah:
1. Advocate of Hindu-Muslim unity.
Muhammad Ali Jinnah rose to prominence in the Indian
National Congress expounding ideas of Hindu-Muslim unity and
helping shape the 1916 Lucknow Pact with the Muslim League; he also became a
key leader in the All India Home Rule. He proposed a fourteen-point
constitutional reform plan to safeguard the political rights of all.
Several Muslim leaders persuaded Jinnah to return in 1934 and re-organise the
Muslim League. Jinnah embraced political opponents with the goal of
self-governance/ 1940 Lahore Resolution. The full council of the Muslim League
under the leadership of the founder of Pakistan, Muhammad Ali Jinnah unanimously passed the resolution in 1940 Lahore Resolution later known as
Pakistan Resolution. The council of the Muslim League granted only three
aspects of governance-currency, foreign affairs, and defence-related
communication to the federal government and all other aspects to states/
provinces. The League won most Muslim seats in the elections of 1946, and the
strong reaction of Congress supporters resulted in communal violence across the
subcontinent. The failure of the Congress-League coalition to govern the
country prompted the British to divide the subcontinent.
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