Pakistan’s Ideology and its Historical Background

Outline:

• Definition Of Ideology

• Ideology Of Pakistan And Two-Nation Theory

• Ideology Of Pakistan And Allama Iqbal

• Ideology Of Pakistan And Quaid-e-Azam

• Conclusion 

Definition Of Ideology:

Ideology can be defined as the set of beliefs, especially the political beliefs on which people, parties or countries base their actions.

Ideology Of Pakistan And Two-Nation Theory:

The ideology of Pakistan was actually the Islamic Ideology based on which Muslims of the Sub-continent claimed a separate independent Muslim state. The Islamic Ideology gave rise to the Two-Nation Theory according to which the Hindus and Muslims were two distinct nations with their own separate religions, cultures, traditions, manners and languages. By establishing a separate independent Muslim State, the Muslims wanted to spend their lives according to the teachings of the Quran. Two-Nation Theory provided the foundation for the Lahore Resolution which demanded a sovereign independent nation for the Muslims.

Sir Syed was the first Muslim leader who put forward the idea of separate religious, cultural, social and political backgrounds of the Hindus and Muslims. Subsequently, other Muslim leaders particularly Allama Iqbal and Quaid-e-Azam developed the Two-Nation theory on a sound footing which led to the creation of Pakistan.

Ideology Of Pakistan And Allama Iqbal:

Allama Iqbal was not only a great poet but also he was a prominent philosopher. After the First World War, he took an active part in politics and along with other Muslim leaders endeavoured to guide the destiny of the Muslims. In respect of the future of the Muslims, he believed that the Hindus and the Muslims were different communities that could not live together in peace. As early as 1909, he had rejected the idea of common nationhood for the Hindus and Muslims by saying:

“Then the vision of common nationhood for India is a 

beautiful ideal and has a poetic appeal. But looking 

to the conditions and the unconscious trends of

two communities appear incapable of fulfilment.”

From 1920 to 1929, Allama Iqbal watched the political development in India very closely and the anti-Muslim attitude of Hindus convinced him to believe that the two major communities of the Sub-continent cannot pull together amicably. Thus he openly declared that: 

“We suspect each other and inwardly aim at dominating

each other ……….Perhaps we are unwilling to recognize

that each group has a right to free development according

to its own cultural traditions.”

In December 1930, Allama Iqbal presided over the annual session of the Muslim League held at Allahabad. The presidential address delivered by him has become a milestone in the history of the Pakistan Movement because in it he not only traced the individualities of the caste units and religious units inhabiting the Sub-continent but also for the first time put forward the demand for a separate sovereign Muslim State. He declared:

“India is a continent of human groups belonging to different races, speaking different languages and

professing different religions. Their behaviour is

not at all determined by a common race-consciousness.

Even the Hindus do not form a homogeneous group.

The principles of European democracy cannot be 

applicable to India without recognizing the facts of

communal groups. The Muslims demand for the 

creation of Muslim India within India is, therefore,

perfectly justified……I would like to see the Punjab,

North-West Frontier Province, Sindh and Baluchistan

amalgamated into a single state. Self-government within

the British empire, or without the British Empire, the 

formation of a consolidated North-West Indian State appears

to me to be the final destiny of the Muslims, at least of the 

North-West India.”

Thus Allama Iqbal was a great advocate of the Two-Nation Theory or Ideology of Pakistan. He Strongly opposed the concept Of Indian nationalism because he believed that the sub-continent was actually not a country but Asia in miniature. It was inhabited by human groups belonging to different races and professing other religions. Thus on this ground, he demanded a separate nation for the Muslims.

Ideology Of Pakistan And Quaid-e-Azam:

Quaid-e-Azam, the founder of Pakistan was a great exponent and advocate of the Two-Nation Theory. He successfully passed a case for Pakistan on this theory and finally forced the British to accept the partition of the sub-continent. In this regard, his presidential address delivered on 22nd March 1940 was the high watermark of the Pakistan Movement. During his address he said;

“The Hindus and Muslims belong to different religious

Philosophies, social customs and literature. They 

neither intermarry nor interdine together and indeed

they belong to two different civilizations which are based

on conflicting ideas and conceptions. Their concepts on 

life and of life are different. It is quite clear that Hindus

Muslims derive their inspiration from different sources

of history. They have different epics, different heroes 

and different episodes. Very often the hero of one is 

the foe of others and likewise, their victories and defeats

overlap. To yoke together two such distinct nations 

under a single state, one as a numerical majority and

other a minority must lead to growing discontent and

final destruction…….”

Based on the Two-Nation Theory All-India Muslim League passed its Lahore Resolution on 23rd March 1940 making the achievement of Pakistan great for the political struggle of Muslims. After the passage of the Lahore Resolution, there was only one main chant by the Muslims i.e.

Ban Ke Rahega Pakistan! Le Ke Rahenge Pakistan!

Later on, in 1944, during his talks with Gandhi, Quaid-e-Azam clearly said;

“We hold and maintain that the Hindus and Muslims 

are two major nations by any definite or a taste of a 

nation. We are a nation of a hundred million and what

is more we are a nation with our own distinctive culture

and civilization, language and literature, art and archive-

-texture, names and nomenclature, sense of values and 

proportions, legal laws and moral codes, customs and

calendar, history and traditions, aptitude and ambitions.

In short, we have our own distinctive outlook on life and

of life. By all canons of international law, we are a nation.”

Conclusion:

The fundamental concept of the ideology of Pakistan is that Muslims are a separate nation having their own culture, literature, religion and way of life. They cannot be merged in any other nation. They should be able to develop their culture and religious traditions in an Islamic State and they should be able to create a truly Islamic society for themselves.

Thus the ideology of Pakistan which developed through the period of Mohammad Bin Qasim and others and followed by political leaders like Quaid-e-Azam was materialized in 1947.

1.3.1 Evaluate the role of SIR SYED AHMED KHAN as a reformer.

The great emancipator of the Indian Muslims Sir Syed Ahmad Khan was born in Delhi in 1817. This is the period when the great Mughal Empire was close to a complete collapse. Sir Syed’s family had already joined the East India Company and his maternal grandfather served in Iran and Burma under the British government. Sir Syed got interested in English from his maternal family. Sir Syed joined the British as head clerk in 1839. In 1841, he passed the examination and became sub-judged. During the War of Independence, he was performing the duties as sub-judge in Bijnore. He established many educational institutions and after coming to Aligarh he started working for the depressed Muslims of the Subcontinent. He devoted his entire life to this purpose to bring the Muslims close to the British. He died on March 27, 1898, and was buried in Aligarh.

His Services:

He took responsibility for the Indian Muslims when they had been thrown into backwardness, depression and humiliation. The British held them, criminals of the War while the Hindus had won the trust of the British being an anti-Muslim force. In such an environment, Sir Syed guided his community to rejoin life, not abandon learning English and education. He told the British through his publications that the Muslims were not the Sole participants of the War but the Hindus were too. He established many educational institutions.

Sir Syed and Politics:

In the political arena, Sir Syed carved numerous successes; he eradicated misunderstandings between the Muslims and the British. He awakened the Muslims and motivated them to get the modern education of the West because this was the very motive of the Western expansion in the world.

Sir Syed won the British confidence, established a cordial relationship and utilized this relationship for the betterment of the Muslims because the government had put the War responsibilities on the Muslim shoulders and assaulted their lives. All Muslims were ousted from land, property and employment which made them third-class citizens of India. This created revengeful sentiments among the Muslims who detested the British, their culture and their civilization. Sir Syed believed that the British were a civilized, educated, wise and disciplined nation and occupied India with new war strategies and munitions that could not be matched by the locals and particularly by the Muslims. Therefore, at this juncture, Muslims should mould themselves according to the pace of time to avoid more disasters. He established many educational institutions to educate Muslims, and Aligarh College is one of his best contributions.

1.3.2 Discuss the Aligarh movement and its role in the making of Pakistan.

The Aligarh Movement:

The War of Independence in 1857 ended in a disaster for the Muslims. The British believed that the Muslims were responsible for the war of 1857 and therefore, they were subjected to ruthless punishment and merciless revenge. The British had always looked upon the Muslims as their enemies because they had ousted them from power. With the war of 1857, this feeling was intensified and every attempt was made to ruin and suppress the Muslims forever. Thus the Mughal rule came to an end and the sub-continent went directly under the British crown.

Sir Syed Ahmad Khan made modern education the way to progress

After the Muslim rule, the new rulers, the British, implemented a new educational policy with drastic changes. The policy restricted Arabic, Persian and religious education in schools and made English the only medium of instruction as well as the official language in 1835. A wrong attitude toward everything modern and Western, and a disinclination to make use of the opportunities opening under the new regime was created among the Muslims. This tendency had it continued long, would have proved disastrous for the Muslim community.

Such were the days of despair and despondency when Sir Syed appeared on the horizon of Muslim India to rescue them. Sir Syed had the conviction that the regeneration of the Indian Muslims had not at all visualized that mankind had entered a very important phase of its existence, i.e. an era of science and learning which was the source of progress and prosperity for the British. Therefore, modern education became the pivot of his movement for the regeneration of the Indian Muslims, which brought a complete orientation in their lives. He tried to transform Muslim minds from a medieval outlook to a modern one.

Hali and Shibli were also associated with the Aligarh Movement.

Sir Syed’s first and foremost objective was to modernize the Muslims following Western cultural values could create a friendly atmosphere for the two communities. He motivated his community to learn Western philosophy and English literature to get along with the ruling people.

Therefore, to fulfil this desire, he started the Aligarh movement. He had immediate objectives in view:

1. To remove the state of tension between the Muslims and the British government.
2. To induce them to get jobs and other facilities under the new government.
3. To him, this was the only way for the Muslims to prosper.
4. To create an atmosphere of mutual understanding between the British government and the Muslims.
5. To motivate Muslims to learn Western education.
6. To persuade Muslims to abstain from agitational politics.

Fortunately, Syed Ahmad Khan was able to attract several sincere friends who shared his views and helped him. Among them were well-known figures like Nawab Mohsin ul Mulk, Nawab Viqar ul Mulk, Hali, Shibli, Nazir Ahmad, Chiragh Ali, Mohammad Hayat, and Zakaullah. All these personalities advocated the cause set by Sir Syed Ahmad Khan. Some English professors like Bech, Morison, Raleigh and Arnold also contributed greatly to building up Aligarh College into a first-rate institution.

Syed Ahmad launched his educational movement by setting up Gulshan School at Muradabad - in 1859; Victoria School at Gazipur in 1863; the Scientific Society for the Translation of English words in the native language, Urdu, at Aligarh in 1864; Aligarh Institute Gazette imparting information on history -

ancient and modern, the science of agriculture, natural sciences, physical sciences and Advanced Mathematics in 1866; Committee Striving for the Educational Progress of Muslims - 1870; Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental School (MAO) at Aligarh in 1875 at the pattern of English public schools and later raised to the level of college in 1877 and university in 1920; Mohammedan Educational Conference (1886), which met every year to take stock of the educational problems of the Muslims and to persuade them to get modern education and abstain from politics; it later became a political mouthpiece of the Indian Muslims and the forerunner of the All India Muslim League.

Besides his prominent role in the educational uplift of the Muslims, Syed Ahmad Khan’s writings played an important role in popularizing the ideals for which Aligarh stood. His Risala Asbab-i-Baghawat-i-Hind in 1858; and other writings as Loyal Mohammedans of India; Tabyin-ul-Kalam and Khutbat-i-Ahmadiya rooted out the misunderstandings about Islamic teachings and helped create a cordial relation between the

British Government and the Indian Muslims also helped to remove the misunderstanding about Islam and Christianity.

It was this platform from where Syed Ahmad Khan strongly forbade Muslims to join the Hindu-dominated political party, the Indian National Congress. He regretted the Urdu-Hindi controversy initiated by Hindus and predicted that both nations could no longer live together. He stood for reserved Movement theory.

seats for Muslims and also promoted the idea that Hindus and Muslims are two distinct nations, which led to the Two-Nation

Syed Ahmad Khan’s Aligarh Movement played a significant role in bringing about an intellectual revolution among Indian Muslims. Thus Aligarh Movement succeeded in achieving its major objectives and boosted the depressed Muslim community to the real status of the nation.

1.3.4 The Formation of All India Muslim League:

BACKGROUND : 

After the defeat in the War of Independence(1857). The Muslims became the target of British victimization because they thought that the Muslims were the sole participants in the war. They snatched their properties and jobs. English was made the official language. To save the Muslims From the atrocities of the British, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan took the responsibility of protecting the rights of the Muslims, he brought awareness among the Muslims to learn English and get an education to compete with Hindus but his efforts were without the formation of any political organization. After the death of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan in 1888, the Anti-muslim activities of Congress further increased.

At last, a Delegation consisting of 35 members, under the leadership of Sir Agha Khan met the Viceroy of India and presented Muslim demands. Due to the positive answer of the viceroy, a feeling of Confidence and unity was Created. The All India Muslim League was created out of this Convection.

INTRODUCTION : 

Muslim Leaders met at Dhaka in December 1906 on the occasion of the annual meeting of the All India Muslim educational conference. At the end of the meeting Nawab Salim-Ullah Khan of Dacca convened a meeting of Muslim leaders at his residence, which was presided over by Nawab Viqar-ul-Mulk The meeting took place at Dhaka under the presidency of Nawab vicar-ul-Mulk. He stressed the need for A political platform for Muslims. Nawab Salim-Ullah Khan moved a resolution which was supported by Hakim Ajmal Khan, Nawab Zafar Ali Khan and other participants for establishing a Muslim organization to be called All India Muslim League.

REASONS FOR CREATION :

1.  Failure of the All India National Congress the protect the rights of minorities.

2. Hindus' opposition to Urdu and partition of Bengal (1905).

3 . The negative attitude of Hindu Sectarian parties and Movements.

4 . The problem of slaughtering cows.

5 . Claim of Congress to the only responsible properties.

6 . The success of Simla Delegation (1906).

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE MUSLIM LEAGUE.

1. To Promote the Muslims of India's feelings of Loyalty to the British Government and to remove misconceptions among them.
2. To Protect the political rights and interests of the Muslims of India.
3. To Prevent the rise among India's Muslims of any hostility towards other communities.

HEAD OFFICE : 

Aligarh was at a central position in the Political, Educational and Economic Progress of Indian Muslims. So the Head Office of All India Muslim League was Also formed in Aligarh.

FIRST OFFICEHOLDER : 

In the Meeting of March 1908, Sir Agha Khan was elected as President and Syed Hassan Bilgrami was elected as a General Secretary of the Muslim League.

ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE MUSLIM LEAGUE :

1 . A representative of Muslims of the Sub-continent.

2. Answer to Congress Propaganda.

3. Approval of Separate Election.

4. Formation of Aligarh Muslim University.

 Government of India Act 1909 (Minto-Morley Reforms):

 Background:

 By 1909 political turmoil and unrest prevailed in India. The extremist Hindu and Congress activities had forced the Muslims to give serious thought to their future line of action to protect and safeguard their interests as a nation. By now the Muslims had come to realize with a firmness that they were a separate nation. The demand for a separate electorate by the Simla Deputation and later by the Muslim League was the first step taken in the direction of protecting and maintaining the separate image of the Muslims.

Minto-Morley Reforms:

The British Government had realized the importance of Muslims’ anxiety about their future and was convinced that the present constitutional provisions were inadequate to provide safeguards to the Muslims. The Government, therefore, decided to introduce new constitutional reforms to dispel Muslim suspicions. The Government made it clear that it was in favour of giving more rights to the Indian people. The Viceroy Lord Minto by the policy of the Government set to the task of preparing a draft Bill, in collaboration with Lord Morley, the Secretary of State for India, for the introduction of constitutional reforms. The Bill was prepared and presented to the Parliament for approval. The Bill, after approval by the Parliament and Royal Assent, was enforced in 1909 and came to be known as the Minto-Morley Reforms of 1909.

Salient Features, Government of India Act 1909:

 The act contained the following provisions:

1. A separate Electorate was accepted for minorities.
2. The preparation of separate electoral rolls was ordered.
3. The Legislative Councils were expanded.
4. The authority of the Council was enhanced. The members were given more liberties. Members were allowed to present Resolutions, discuss budgets and put up questions.
5. The Viceroy’s Council’s membership was fixed at sixty members.
6. The membership of the provinces of Bengal, U.P., Bihar, Bombay, Madras and Orissa was fixed at 50 members whereas the members of the provinces of Punjab, Burma, and Assamweres were fixed at 30 members.
7. The Indian was included in the Executive Council of the Viceroy and in the provincial Executive Councils.
8. The local bodies, trade unions and universities were allowed to elect their members.
9. Lt. Governors were appointed in Bengal, Bombay and Madras. These provinces were given the right to form their own Councils.

Significance of Minto-Morley Reforms:

 Following is the importance of the Minto-Morley Reforms:

1. The Minto-Morley Reforms gave impetus to constitutional development in India.

2. These reforms introduced the system of elections for the first time which created a great deal of political awareness among the Indian people.

3. The acceptance of a separate electorate for the Muslims enhanced their political importance and significance.

Conclusion:

 The importance and utility of the Minto-Morley Reforms cannot be set aside because of some weaknesses in the scheme. It acceded the Muslims, their much-cherished demand, and the separate electorate in the provinces where legislative councils existed. The Muslim League performed in a commendable manner by achieving major demands of the Muslims after only two years of its inception. It scored an amazing political triumph within a short time of its political struggle. The separate electorate set the course of the Muslim freedom movement which culminated in the shape of Pakistan after forty years of intense struggle. It also gave strength to the Two-Nation Theory which became the basis of the Muslim freedom struggle.

Partition of Bengal (1905-1911):

The partition of Bengal was the most important event during the rule of Lord Curzon. It was carried out mainly for the convenience of administration. Bengal in those days was the biggest province of India extending over 1, 89, 000 square miles with a population of 80 million. It was comprised of Bengal, Behar and Orissa and was under the centre of one lieutenant Governor. After Lord Curzon took charge as Governor-General of India the discussion over the Partition began due to the following issues:

1. Vastness of Province: The Province was spread over an area of 1, 89, 000 square miles with a population of 80 million, which was too vast to be managed by one lieutenant Governor. He could not make a tour of the whole province due to its vastness once in his tenure.
2. Limited Sources of Communication: The sources of communication in the provinces were limited due to rivers and forests. The law and order condition of the provinces was also worsened due to insufficient police and in-efficient management. Therefore the need for the partition of the province was felt severally.
3. Difference of Language: There was also a difference between the Languages and civilizations of the natives of West Bengal and East Bengal. The natives of West Bengal considered themselves superior in civilization to the residents of East Bengal. The Condition demanded the division of Provinces.
4. Need of the time: The division of Bengal was the need time to develop trade in East Bengal and promote the Port of Chittagong, which could be done only by the division of the Provinces.
5. Partition: The Partition of Bengal was thus calculated to restore efficiency in the Government and administration on one hand and encourage local initiatives for progress and development on the other. Lord Curzon partitioned Bengal and formed two new provinces of manageable size – East and West Bengal. East Bengal consisted of Dacca, Mymensingh, Assam, Kaula, Rangpur, and Bogra districts, Dacca was the capital of East Bengal constituted a majority Muslim Province, while the Bihar and Orissa constituted a separate province to be called West Bengal with the capital of Calcutta and become the Hindu Majority provinces. East Bengal contained a population of eighteen million Muslims and twelve million Hindus. Whereas West Bengal had a population of fifty-four million of which 42 million were Hindus and thus was the Hindu majority province.

 Muslims’ Response

It received a favourable response from the Muslims. It was thought that it would bring the emancipation of Muslims socially and economically. The Muslims welcomed the Partition of Bengal for the following reasons:

1. In the majority province of East Bengal, the Muslims would be free from Hindu dominance in the economic field. They would get opportunities for services and the advancement of agriculture.
2. The city of Dacca, where the Muslims were in majority was the centre of Muslim culture. In Dacca, Muslims had a greater chance of success in social and cultural advancement than in Calcutta.
3. The Partition could result in political uplift and securing representative action in the Government.
4. The partition of Bengal relieved the Muslims from competing with Hindus, who were more advanced in every field of life.

Hindus Response

 The Hindus did not accept it, as it dealt a telling blow to their monopolies and exclusive hold on the economic, social, and political life of the whole of Bengal. They called it a deliberate attempt by the British Government

1. The Partition of Bengal had brightened the possibility of the betterment of Muslims; while the Hindu landlords, capitalists and traders wanted the status quo and to continue the exploitation of the Muslims.
2. Hindu lawyers also reacted to the partition of Bengal because they thought that the new province would have its separate courts and thus their practice would be affected.
3. Hindu press was not different from that of Hindu advocates. Hindus had their monopoly over almost the whole of the province's press. They were afraid that new newspapers would be established which would decrease their income naturally.
4. The Hindus launched the Swadeshi Movement whose sole purpose was to boycott British goods.

 Annulment of the Partition (1911)

When Lord Hardinge assumed charge as Governor-General of India Hindus again became active and sent a representation to him for the annulment of the partition of Bengal. He recommended the same to the British Prime Minister for Indian Affairs. On the occasion of the visit of His Majesty George V to Indo-Pakistan and the holding of Darbar at Delhi on 12th December 1911 the partition of Bengal was cancelled.

 The united Bengal was placed under a Governor and Assam was placed under a Chief Commissioner. This decision was a shattering blow to Muslims. It left them sullen and disillusioned. Their anger and indignation had widespread repercussions. The Muslim leaders and intelligentsia condemned the decision as a betrayal of the worst kind.

 Conclusion

 The Muslims of India had appreciated the step and started turning in the favour of the British but the British soon gave in against the mounting pressure of Hindus which helped the Muslims to realize the importance of standing on their feet and organizing themselves politically. It also affirmed the apprehension of Sir Syed that the Muslims might submerge in the majority of Hindus and lose their identity and integrity.

Lucknow Pact (1916)

Outline:

• Background

• Annulment Of the Partition of Bengal

• Jinnah Joins the League

• Signing Of the Lucknow Pact

• Main Points of the Pact

• Critical Analysis of the Pact/Conclusion

Background:

In the first half of the twentieth century, the Hindu-Muslim controversy was going on, but certain events took place that made the Hindus and Muslims think about the collaboration in their struggle for self-rule in India.

Annulment Of The Partition Of Bengal:

The annulment of the partition of Bengal in December 1911 shocked the Muslims and they felt convinced that even loyalty to the British government was not enough to safeguard their interests and rights. Thus, the Muslim leadership decided to change the strategy of the Muslim League. As a result, in December 1912, the  League changed its aim from loyalty to forming a self-government suitable to India. However, the league retained its rights to modify self-rule by their needs and requirements.

Jinnah Joins The League:

In the meantime, Jinnah joined the Muslim League. Mohammad Ali Jinnah’s entry into the league also helped to change the attitudes of the Muslims towards the Hindus. He worked day and night for Hindu-Muslim unity and earned the title of “Ambassador of Unity”. Ultimately his efforts bore fruit and Congress and League held their annual sessions simultaneously at Lucknow. Presiding at the Muslim League session, he advocated Hindu-Muslim unity by saying, 

“Towards the Hindus, our attitude should be of goodwill

And brotherly feelings, cooperation in the cause of our

Motherland should be our guiding principle. India’s real

Progress can only be achieved by a true understanding

And harmonious relations between the two great sister

Communities.”

Signing Of The Lucknow Pact:

During the joint session in December 1916 at Luc, an agreement was signed between the Congress and the Muslim League, which is historically known as “The Lucknow The Pact” or “Congress-League Scheme.”

Main Clauses Of The Pact:

Following were the main clauses of the Lucknow Pact.

1. The right of Muslims to separate the electorate was accepted by Congress.
2. Both Congress and the Muslim League demanded self-rule from the government.
3. The Governor-General should be the Head of the government of India.
4. Half of the elected members of the Executive Council of the Governor-General should be Indians.
5. No bill shall be presented by a non-official member against another community without the approval of the concerned group.
6. Four-fifths members of the Imperial Council should be Indians, and One-third members of the Imperial Council should be Muslims.
7. The members of the assemblies shall have the right to present the adjournment motion.
8. The strength of each provincial legislature in the major province should be at least 125 and 50 to 75 in the minor province.
9. Muslims will be given “weightage” in Muslim minority provinces and Hindus will be given “weightage” in Muslim majority areas.
10. The members of the provincial legislature should be directly elected by the people for a term of five years.
11. The judiciary shall be separated from the Executive.
12. In the Province, Muslims will be given representation in the ratio of:
• Punjab: 50%
• Bengal: 40%
• Bombay: 33%
• U.P: 30%
• Bihar: 25%
• C.P: 15%
• Madras: 15%

Critical Analysis/Conclusion:

1. Symbol Of Unity:
2. The Lucknow Pact was a symbol of unity between the Hindus and Muslims for the first time in the history of the freedom struggle in the Sub-continent. The great achievement of this pact was the acceptance of Congress of the right of separate electorates of Muslims. Congress never accepted the Muslim League as the true representative of the Muslims of India but through this Pact Congress recognized the Muslim League on equal footing with it. This pact gave the Muslim League real strength for the first time.
3. Enough Concession To each other:
4. Both parties gave enough concession to each other. For example, Muslims were given representation in non-Muslim majority provinces and Hindus were also given more representation in Muslim minority areas.
5. Atmosphere Of Cooperation

This Pact created an atmosphere of cooperation between the two nations. But this proved a transitionary period. Muslims’ happiness could not last long when they found Congress withdrawing from the Pact in the Nehru Report. The atmosphere of amity and brotherhood in which the pact was formed had now again converted into that of hostility. The political path of Congress changed when Gandhi took its leadership and we find that sincere efforts made by Quaid-e-Azam proved futile and he accepted the reality of the Two-nation theory.

Government of India Act1919 (Montague-Chelmsford Reforms):

Background

With the unity between The Congress and The Muslim League through the Lucknow Pact (1916). The Government felt conspiracy against itself. A committee was formed under the supervision of Justice S.A Rowlatt to suggest ways to suppress political conspiracies against the Government. The committee presented its report in 1918 containing strict actions against those who were found involved in a conspiracy against the Government. The political leaders expressed their utmost annoyance and declared the Rowlatt Committee Report as “Criminal”.

The Quaid-i-Azam resigned from the Imperial Legislative Council as a protest against the report. The famous Jallianwala Bagh incident took place which added fuel to the fire.

Montague-Chelmsford Reforms:

Salient Features, Government of India Act, 1919:

The Government of India Act, of 1919 was based to a great extent on the Montague-Chelmsford Report. The following were the most important features of the Act, of 1919.

• A bicameral legislature was established in the Centre. The Upper House was known as the Council of State and the Lower House was named as Central Legislative Assembly. The membership of the Upper House was fixed at 60 members while the Lower House consisted of 146 members.
• The Upper House was elected for 5 years and the Lower House for 3 years.
• A separate electorate was retained for minorities.
• Self-Government would be established gradually in India.
• The system of hierarchy was introduced in the provinces. The provincial subjects were divided into Reserved and Transferred ones.
• The subjects were divided between the Centre and Provinces. The central subjects were Defence, Foreign Affairs, Currency, Railway and Telecommunication. The Provincial subjects included Education, Health, Irrigation and Local Government.
• The Governor-General’s Executive Council was responsible to the Secretary of State for India who was sitting in London.
• The Governor-General retained the right to certify any legislation which he considered essential.

An Appraisal of the Montague-Chelmsford Reforms:

The Montague-Chelmsford Reforms of 1919 conceded far less than the Lucknow Pact had demanded. The Act did not make important changes at the Centre. The bicameral system of the legislature was introduced at the Centre but there was no appreciable increase in the powers of the legislature. In the domain of provinces, Dyarchy was introduced but it was unsound in principle and unworkable in practice. Such concessions were not acceptable to Congress and the Muslim League. The Indians felt that the Reforms of 1919 had not given them enough powers and they were dissatisfied with them. The Rowlett Act, the Jallianwala Bagh Tragedy, Martial Law and other sad happenings added to the resentment and bitterness of the people.

The political circles declared these reforms as inadequate and unsatisfactory. Congress split into two factions over the question of accepting the Reforms, one group was in favour of accepting the Reforms while the other was for rejecting them. Muslim League too, was not very optimistic about the proposals as they did not contain any concrete suggestions about the introduction of self-rule in India. Thus, the reforms introduced by the Act of 1919 failed to satisfy the people of India and the people did not think the 1919 Reforms worth any consideration or attention

Khilafat Movement [1919-1924]:

Historical Background: It was the time when the unity between the Muslims and the Hindus was at its peak due to the Lucknow Pact. When the First World War broke out the circumstances compelled the Turkish Empire to fight by the side of Germany. The sympathies of the Indian Muslims naturally were also attached to their Turkish brothers. Simultaneously, the British rulers were trying to keep aside the Indian Muslims from raising any voice in favour of khilafat. At the end of World War 1(1918), The Allies were conquerors, and they were now determined to demolish the Ottoman Empire of Turkey as they fought on the side of Germany. As the khilafat was sacred to the Indian Muslims and they didn’t want to see the humiliation of khilafat their position was also very confusing as they could not afford any confrontation against the Government.

 Khilafat committee: The Muslims organized themselves under the leadership of Hakim Ajmal Khan and formed the Khilafat conference. Ali Brothers were released from jail and they rushed towards the conference and attended the meeting held on 24th November 1918. The following points were discussed at the conference:

1. As a secretary of the khilafat committee, the entire responsibility of the committee for safeguarding the sacred institution of khilafat was put on the shoulder of MOLANA Shaukat Ali.
2. The Khilafat committee decided to send a representative deputation of Hindus, Muslims and people of other walks of life to the viceroy to inform him of the sentiments of the Indian people about the dismemberment of Turkey.
3. Khilafat Delegation: The Khilafat committee met on 23rd November 1919 and decided to send a delegation under the leadership of Maulana Muhammad Ali Jauhar to England to inform the Government about the sentiments of the Muslims.
4. The delegation stayed in London to meet Prime Minister Lloyd George, who was known for his anti-Muslim sentiments. He refused to accept the Indian's demand about Turkey and said Turkey was destined to bear consequences similarly as Germany did. The Khilafat delegation was disappointed and returned back to India.
5. Non-Cooperation Movement: The Hindus under the leadership of Gandhi came forward with their full support for the Khilafat Movement. Gandhi advocated full support by the entire Indian Nation of the Muslim demands and outlined a programme to launch the Non-Cooperation movement for the achievement of the dual objective of Indian independence and restoration of the Caliphate.
6. Chauri Chaura Tragedy: Gandhi used the Khilafat movement as a tool to achieve the Swaraj-self ruler which he extended cooperation for the Khilafat cause. During the civil disobedience movement in 1922 in the small town of Chauri Chaura in the farakhabad district. The people of Chauri Chaura demonstrated in the form of a procession and refused to pay government taxes. When the police tried to disperse the mob, the hostile mob set fire to the police station where 22 policemen were burnt to death. Gandhi immediately called off the non-cooperation movement without concerning other leaders. In this way, the movement to restore khilafat was weakened and ended.

Impact of the Khilafat Movement on the Muslims of the sub-continent: 

For the Muslims, The Khilafat movement ended in complete failure. The reaction to Gandhi’s betrayal, amongst the Muslims was bitter and strong. They felt betrayed on the eve of victory. But the bigger shock was the Fall of the Ottoman caliphate in Turkey. The efforts of the Muslims were abolished by their Muslim hero Mustafa Kamal Atatürk, who established a nationalist Government in India. Many of the Muslim leaders were imprisoned.

The Role of the Ali Brothers in the Khilafat Movement:

Both Ali brothers were in jail but when they were realized, they rushed to attend the Khilafat conference. Molana Shokat Ali was nominated as the secretary of the committee. The entire responsibility for safeguarding the Khilafat movement was on the shoulders of the Ali brothers.

Simon Commission 1927:

In, 1927 Lord Irwin was Viceroy of India. Who appointed a commission under the instruction of the British government which consisted of seven members under Sir John Simon.  Sir John Simon was its chairman. The instruction was given to the chairman that they had to investigate the Indian constitution problems then they had to present a detailed report in which they mentioned the adequate reforms. All the members of the commission were British, even though they did not include a single Indian member. Indian leaders make them realize that to examine the problems and feelings of the Indian nation they should appoint Indian members to commission so, they can solve the problems of the Indian people because without this they cannot make any decision for the future of India.

Simon's commission reached Bombay on 3rd February 1928. Before the arrival of this commission, all the leaders decided that in any case, they all would boycott the commission. The Commission started his Indian tour. There were strikes all over India against the commission. But in Lahore, there were extreme conditions. On 30th October 1928, the commission reached Lahore by train. People were gathered there and chanted loudly Go, Simon Go. After the tour of India, they went back and finally presented their report.

There were the following recommendations on the Commission report:

1. The Diarchy system in the provinces should be abolished and all the portfolios should be handed over to the provincial ministers.
2. The power of the central government and the provincial governors should be reduced.
3. The federal system of government should be introduced in India.
4. The right to vote should be extended to more people.
5. An expert committee should be constituted regarding the separation of Sindh from Bombay. The separation of Sindh was not granted in principle. First, there would have to be a close and detailed enquiry into the financial consequences which would follow such a step.
6. The demand of the frontier for equal status was also neglected. "The inherent right of a man to smoke a cigarette”, said the report "must necessarily be curtailed if he lived in a powered magazine.”

Nehru Report 1928

Outline:

1 Nehru Report

2 Historical Background

3 IMPORTANT POINTS OF NEHRU REPORT

4 CONCLUSIONS FROM NEHRU REPORT

5 REACTIONS TOWARDS NEHRU REPORT 6 IN A NUTSHELL

In November 1927, the British Government appointed a commission headed by Sir John Simon to inquire into the constitutional affairs of the country. Since no Indian was present in this commission, the Indians did not welcome the Simon Commission. When the members of this commission were talking about the political situation of India, the Congress called on all parties to conference in Bombay on May 19,1928. The Muslim League boycotted this conference. The all-parties conference appointed a committee headed by Pandit Moti Lal Nehru to submit a report after considering the principles of a constitution for India. The committee recommended a proposal generally known as the "Nehru Report".

IMPORTANT POINTS OF NEHRU REPORT:

The main points of the Nehru Report are as follows:

1. The Nehru committee demanded the repudiation of separate elections.
2. It demanded the Form of Government at the center would be Federal with substantial powers invested in the control of the Government.
3. It recommended one-third of Muslim representation at the central legislative.
4. The committee demanded interdiction of reforming Baluchistan and N.W.F.P provinces.
5. The foreign affairs, defense and army should be placed under the control of parliament and viceroy.
6. A unitary form of Government to established in the center.
7. Hindi should be the official language.
8. Nehru's Recommendations were against the interest of the Muslim Community.
9. The Muslims could not surrender their right to separate electorates.
10. The principles of non-reservation and joint electorates were to make their position in Punjab and Bengal provinces.

REACTIONS TOWARDS NEHRU REPORT:

The Nehru Report projected the Hindu leadership mentality ailed at the digestion of the Muslim nation under the cover of one nation in the India-Pakistan Subcontinent.

Since the report was totally against Muslims. Therefore, the Muslim League and other Muslim parties in the country rejected it. Quaid-e-Azam said:

"As a young man, he had been a keen owner of greyhounds(wolf), but he had never greyhounds dealt with the hare as the Hindus proposed to deal with the Muslims."

IN A NUTSHELL:

Thus, the Nehru Report reflected the hostility, mental level and attitude of the Hindus towards the Muslims of India. All its proposals were made disregarding the interests of the Muslims. 

Historical Background:

CONCLUSIONS FROM NEHRU REPORT

JINNAH’S 14 POINTS:

The Quaid-e-Azam decided to give his own formula for the constitutional reforms in reply to the Nehru Report. He convened the meeting of the Muslim League in 1929 in Delhi and gave his famous Fourteen Points Formula. While delivering his Presidential Address, the Quaid-e-Azam declared that no constitution shall be accepted by the Muslims of India without the Fourteen Points as Follow: -

1. The form of the future constitution should be federal with the residuary powers vested in the provinces.
2. A uniform measure of autonomy shall be granted to all the provinces.
3. All legislatures in the country and other elected bodies shall be constituted on the definite principle of adequate and effective representation of minorities in every province without reducing the majority in any province to a minority or even equality.
4. In the Central Legislature, Muslim representation shall not be less than one-third.
5. Representation of communal groups shall continue to be through separate electorates as at present provided it shall be open to any community at any time to abandon its separate electorate in Favour of a joint electorate.
6. Any territorial distribution that might at any time be necessary shall not in any way affect the Muslim majority in the Punjab, Bengal and the North-West Frontier Province.
7. Full religious liberty, i.e. liberty of belief, worship, observance, propaganda, association and education shall be guaranteed to all communities.
8. No bill or any resolution or any part thereof shall be passed in any legislature or any other elected body if three-fourths of the members of any community in that particular body oppose such a bill, resolution or part thereof on the ground that it would be injurious to the interests of that community or in the alternative, such other method is devised as may be found feasible and practicable to deal with such cases.
9. Sindh should be separated from the Bombay Presidency. 
10. Reforms should be made in the North-West Frontier Province and Baluchistan are on the same footing as the other provinces.
11. Provisions should be made in the constitution giving Muslims an adequate share, along with the other Indians, in all the services of the state and in local self-governing bodies having due regard to the requirements of efficiency.
12. The constitution should embody adequate safeguards for the protection of Muslim culture and for the protection and promotion of Muslim education, language, religion, personal laws and Muslim charitable institutions and for their due share in the grants-in-aid given by the state and by local self-governing bodies.
13. No cabinet, either Central or Provincial, should be formed without there being a proportion of at least one-third of Muslim Ministers.
14. No change shall be made in the constitution by the Central Legislature except with the concurrence of the State’s contribution to the Indian Federation.

Importance of Fourteen Points:

These points should have been given more importance in the Congress circle as well as by the Government authorities. As a result of it, the political attitude of the Muslims of India was constituted based on these Points after 1930. As these points also contain the germs of the idea of Pakistan, they postulate that Muslims as a separate national identity. Based on these points, it was suggested that the political power and opportunities for development were to be equally divided among Hindus and Muslims.

With the rejection of Fourteen Points by Congress and other Hindu leaders, the Nehru Report was also doomed. The Nehru Report created a great deal of suspicion in the Muslims who were now seriously thinking about the attainment of a separate homeland for themselves.

These Points attained historic importance. No future constitution could be evolved unless it was within the framework provided by these Points. Even Allama Iqbal seems to have drawn his concept of a separate Muslim state in South Asia from these Points of Jinnah.

ROUND TABLE CONFERENCES:

The Indian political community received the Simon Commission report issued in June 1930 with great resentment. Different political parties gave vent to their feelings in different ways. The Congress started a Civil Disobedience Movement under Gandhi’s command. The Muslims reserved their opinion on the Simon Report declaring that the report was not final, and the matters should be decided after consultations with the leaders representing all communities in India.

The Indian political situation seemed deadlocked. The British government refused to contemplate any form of self-government for the people of India. This caused frustration amongst the masses, who often expressed their anger in violent clashes.  The government decided to hold a Round Table Conference in London to consider new constitutional reforms. All Indian politicians: Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs and Christians were summoned to London for the conference.

Gandhi immediately insisted at the conference that he alone spoke for all Indians and that Congress was the party of the people of India. He argued that the other parties only represented sectarian viewpoints, with little or no significant following.

First Round Table Conference

The first session of the conference opened in London on November 12, 1930. All parties were present except for the Congress, whose leaders were in jail due to the Civil Disobedience Movement. Congress leaders stated that they would have nothing to do with further constitutional discussion unless the Nehru Report was enforced in its entirety as the constitution of India.

Almost 89 members attended the conference, out of which 58 were chosen from various communities and interests in British India, and the rest from princely states and other political parties. The prominent Muslim delegates invited by the British government were Sir Aga Khan, Quaid-i-Azam, Maulana Muhammad Ali Jouhar, Sir Muhammad Shafi and Maulvi Fazl-i-Haq. Sir Taj Bahadur Sapru, Mr Jaikar and Dr Moonje were outstanding amongst the Hindu leaders.

The Muslim-Hindu differences overcast the conference as the Hindus were pushing for a powerful central government while the Muslims stood for a loose federation of completely autonomous provinces.

1. The Muslims demanded the maintenance of weightage and separate electorates.

2 . The Muslims claimed a statutory majority in Punjab and Bengal.

3. In Punjab, the situation was complicated by inflated Sikh claims.

Eight subcommittees were set up to deal with the details. These committees dealt with the federal structure, provincial constitution, franchise, Sindh, the North-West Frontier Province, defence services and minorities.

The conference broke up on January 19, 1931, and what emerged from it was a general agreement to write safeguards for minorities into the constitution and a vague desire to devise a federal system for the country.

Gandhi-Irwin Pact:

After the conclusion of the First Round Table Conference, the British government realized that the cooperation of the Indian National Congress was necessary for further advancement in the making of the Indian constitution. Thus, Lord Irwin, the Viceroy, extended an invitation to Gandhi for talks. Gandhi agreed to end the Civil Disobedience Movement without laying down any preconditions.

The agreement between Gandhi and Irwin was signed on March 5, 1931. The following are the salient points of this agreement:

1. The Congress would discontinue the Civil Disobedience Movement.
2. The Congress would participate in the Round Table Conference.
3. The government would withdraw all ordinances issued to curb the dress.
4. The government would withdraw all prosecutions relating to offences not involving violence.
5. The government would release all persons undergoing sentences of imprisonment for their activities in the civil disobedience movement.

Second Round Table Conference:

The second session of the conference opened in London on September 7, 1931. The main task of the conference was done through the two committees on federal structure and minorities. Gandhi was a member of but he adopted a very unreasonable attitude. He claimed that he represented all of India and dismissed all other Indian delegates as non-representative because they did not belong to Congress.

The communal problem represented the most difficult issue for the delegates. Gandhi again tabled the Congress scheme for a settlement, a mere reproduction of the Nehru Report, but all the minorities rejected it.

Three important committees drafted their reports; the Franchise Committee, the Federal Finance Committee and the States Inquiry Committee. On a concluding day, the British Prime Minister, Ramsay MacDonald appealed to the Indian leaders to reach a communal settlement. Failing to do so, he said, would force the British government would take a unilateral decision. Quaid-i-Azam did not participate in the session of the Second Round Table Conference as he had decided to keep himself aloof from Indian politics and to practice as a professional lawyer in England. On his return to India, Gandhi once again started the Civil Disobedience Movement and was duly arrested

Third Round Table Conference:

The third session began on November 17, 1932. It was short and unimportant. The Congress was once again absent, and so was the Labor opposition in the British Parliament. Reports of the various committees were scrutinized. The conference ended on December 25, 1932.

The recommendations of the Round Table Conferences were embodied in a White Paper. It was published in March 1933, and debated in parliament directly afterwards, analyzed by the Joint Select Committee and after the final reading and royal assent, the bill reached the Statute Book on July 24, 1935.

Communal Awards:

The British government published its own scheme known as the Communal Award in August 1932, after the failure of the Round Table conference. It retained a separate electorate for the Muslims and for the other communities but the Muslim majorities in Punjab and Bengal were reduced to minorities. But the Indian political parties and Muslims rejected communal awards

Government of India Act, 1935

It was the most important and comprehensive legislation introduced by the British government in India. It was gradually formulated starting with the Simon Commission, Round Table Conferences, White Paper (1933) and J.S.C. It was a lengthy document passed by the parliament in July 1935 and got Royal assent in August 1935.

Salient Features:

1. It provided a Federal System with a center, 11 Governor Provinces, 6 Chief Commissioner
2. Provinces and the states are willing to join it.
3. Three lists of subjects were given with a powerful center.

• The federal list had Defense, Postal services, External affairs, Coinage and Communication.
• The provincial list included education, police, Local self-government, justice, agriculture, public service, fisheries and forests.
• The concurrent list included criminal law, civil marriage, divorce, registration, bankruptcy, factories and succession.

Two houses of Central Legislature:

1. Council of State comprised 260 members, out of which 156 were from British provinces and
2. 104 from The Indian States.
3. The method of the election was indirect. Communal representation was also secured.
4. Federal Assembly was a lower house consisting of 375 members. Out of which 250 represented
5. British provinces and 125 from the Indian States.
6. They were elected by provincial legislatures on the principle of a separate electorate. States were to nominate their members.
7. Limited Powers were given to the legislature:
8. They could do lawmaking for two lists but Governor Generals could turn down or refuse the bill keeping it for consideration by the British Government.

This constitution provided a Powerful GG: an Executive Chief having powers of 

Act on advice

• Independent Judgment
• Discretion
• Emergency powers
• Ordinances
• Power to rule provinces directly
• Provincial Governments:
• Governors enjoy the powers like the GG in the Centre.
• Diarchy was abolished in provinces.
• Responsible for the government was formed.
• Provincial legislatures not unicameral. The act provided for bicameral legislatures in six provinces and unicameral in five provinces.
• Franchise extended but still restricted based on land revenue of Rs. 5, Non-non-transferable property of Rs. 60, Education: Primary.
• Federal Court and High Courts were formed under the act.
• Burma was separated from India.
• Sindh was separated from Bombay.
• Comments:
• The federal part of the act was not introduced.
• The provincial part was introduced in 1937.
• Provincial autonomy was provided.
• Elected governments were formed in provinces
• A strong centre was maintained.
• This the act expanded electorate.
• Indian government under this act had no control over the defence.
• Indian the legislature could not amend it.
• The federal legislature elected indirectly

(a)  State the significance of the Pakistan Resolution in TWO points.                    

• Pakistan Resolution The political situation was analyzed in detail and Muslims demanded a separate homeland to maintain their identity and to safeguard their rights.
• Pakistan a resolution was the landmark in the history of the Muslims of South Asia. It determined for the Muslims a true goal and their homeland in the north-east and north-west
• The acceptance of the Pakistan resolution accelerates the pace of the freedom movement. It gave new energy and courage to Muslims who gathered around Quaid-e-Azam in the struggle for freedom.

1.4.5 Explain the major features, outcomes and significance of Cripps Mission 1942, Gandhi-Jinnah Talks 1944 and Simla Conference 1945.

The British government appointed a delegation under the chairmanship of Sir Stafford Cripps whose aim was to hold discussions with Indian leaders. The Cripps mission reached New Delhi on March 23,1942 to hold discussions with Indian leaders. The Cripps did not hold talks with the Indian leaders and left after a fortnight. However, they submitted their own suggestions to the government for constitutional reforms which were as follows:

1. All the representatives of the constituent assemblies formed shall frame the future constitution of India.
2. Any province or State should be free to either adhere or not adhere to the constitution.
3. The British government would retain control of the Defense of India.
4. The Government of India Act 1935 shall remain in force until the cessation of the Second World War.
5. The commander in chief and Finance minister shall be a British Citizen.
6. Both Congress and the Muslim League rejected Cripps's recommendations, Gandhi saying that these recommendations were outdated, and Jinnah saying It does not contain a demand for partition for a separate homeland. 

Gandhi Jinnah Talks (1944):

Gandhi wanted that first, the people of India should oust the British with their joint action. When India was free then by mutual settlement and agreement two separate states could be created. Jinnah was not prepared to trust the words of Gandhi or the Congress. He said separation must come first and then matters of common interest between the two states would be settled by a treaty.

In September 1944, the two met to consider the future of India but the talks broke down for several reasons. One of the reasons was that Gandhi wanted the League to give immediate support to Congress in its struggle to remove the British from India. Only after the British left, the partition would be considered. Jinnah wanted to secure the partition before the British left India. Why should Congress agree to the partition once they left? So, this was the one reason why the talks broke down. Another reason was that Gandhi wanted the central govt. to have control over key areas such as defense and foreign policy. But Jinnah wanted these matters to be in the hands of the provinces. Moreover, Gandhi was not in Favour of partition, and he considered himself to be speaking for the whole of India and couldn’t accept the position of Muslims as being a separate nation. Hence independence for all Indians as a united nation was on his agenda but Jinnah reminded him that in reality, he was just the spokesman of Congress and wanted just to have Hindu Raj in India. Gandhi gave the impression that he did not support ‘The Two Nation Theory’ according to which Muslims and Hindus were two separate nations, whereas this had now become an official League policy. So this was another reason why the talks failed.

(a)  Write down the significance of Gandhi-Jinnah talks.                                    

• Jinnah’s firm attitude made Congress realize that the Muslim League was an important organization that spoke with authority on behalf of Muslims.
• Once again it was clear that Gandhi always considered the benefits of Hindus and Congress is ignoring other Indian communities and their socio-political rights.

(b)  Why did the Gandhi-Jinnah Talks fail?                                                 

The Gandhi-Jinnah talks failed because Gandhi simply refused to accept the Lahore Resolution as interpreted by Jinnah. He did not believe in the two-nation theory which was the fundamental basis of the Muslims’ demand and totally rejected the Muslim's right to self-determination. On 4th October Jinnah in a press conference in Bombay said, “In one breath Gandhi agrees to the principle of division and in the next, he makes proposals which go to destroy the very foundation on which the division is claimed by Muslim India.”

Gandhi wanted that first, the people of India should oust the British with their joint action. When India was free then by mutual settlement and agreement two separate states could be created. Jinnah was not prepared to trust the words of Gandhi or the Congress. He said separation must come first and then matters of common interest between the two states would be settled by a treaty.

1.4.7 & 8 The difference between the results of elections of 1935-36 and 1945-46.

Reasons behind the difference.

Causes of loss in the 1937 elections:

1. Muslim league at that time lacked strong leadership as their greatest leaders were not there to support them, such as Quaid e Azam (disheartened by Muslim behavior) and Allama Iqbal (who was seriously ill)
2. Muslim league lacked support at ground level as it was not so popular at that time among locals even Muslims.
3. There was an air of aristocracy among the Leagues' prime leaders.
4. There was mismanagement in the party, as they lacked the strong insight of a leader causing them to drift aimlessly.

Reasons for success in the 1945 elections:

1. Quaid-i-Azam's full-fledged support.
2. Atrocities of Congress after winning and forming government in 1937 elections on Muslims.
3. Familiarity with the party.
4. the compassion of independence among Muslims.

1.4.9 Simla conference as a final chapter for reconciliation between Muslims and Hindus.

The Shimla Conference in 1945 was a meeting between the Viceroy and the major political leaders of British India at Simla, India. Convened to agree on and approve the Wavell Plan for Indian self-government, it reached a potential agreement for the self-rule of India that provided separate representation for Muslims and reduced the majority powers for both communities in their majority regions.

Talks, however, stalled on the issue of the selection of Muslim representatives. Seeking to assert itself and its claim to be the sole representative of Indian Muslims, the All-India Muslim League refused to back any plan in which the Indian National Congress, the dominant party in the talks, appointed Muslim representatives. This scuttled the conference, and perhaps the last viable opportunity for a united, independent India. When the Indian National Congress and All India Muslim League reconvened under the Cabinet Mission the next year, the Indian National Congress was far less sympathetic to the Muslim League's requests despite Jinnah's approval of the British plan.

On June 14, 1945, Lord Wavell announced a plan for a new Executive Council in which all members except the Viceroy and the Commander in Chief would be Indians. This executive council was to be a temporary measure until a new permanent constitution could be agreed upon and come into force. All portfolios except Defense would be held by Indian members.

1.4.10 Explain the significance of Cabinet Mission 1946 on the creation of Pakistan?

A. Iqbal was a visionary during the 1930s addressed in Allahabad the letters to Jinnah Iqbal explained the demand for a separate homeland if there was a resolution passed for making a separate homeland in 1940. Then why Quaid-e-Azam was accepting the Union of India in the cabinet mission?

If Congress had accepted the proposals of the Indian Dominion, then what would have been the situation of the Sub-continent?

However, the critique admits that Quaid-i-. Azam knew that Congress would never accept any plan that would be similar to the shape of Pakistan, therefore, he showed acceptance of the plan of the cabinet.

Muslim league accepted the plan initially since it believed that the establishment of Pakistan was inherent in the plan [Feature of the plan: Any province could by a majority vote of Legist assembly call for a reconsideration of the terms of the constitution- Meaning that it could review its relationship with the union and this implied that a group or the province could quit the Indian union] and Muslim league intended to convert two Muslim groups into an independent state within a decade.

1.4.11 Explain the major features of the 3rd of June plan and its implementation?

3 June Plan:

This was also known as the Mountbatten Plan. The British government proposed a plan announced on 3 June 1947 that included these principles:

1. The principle of the Partition of British India was accepted by the British Government
2. Successor governments would be given dominion status
3. The Act's most important provisions were:

• division of British India into the two new and fully sovereign dominions of India and Pakistan, with effect from 15 August 1947.
• partition of the provinces of Bengal and Punjab between the two new countries.
• establishment of the office of Governor-General in each of the two new countries, as representatives of the Crown.
• conferral of complete legislative authority upon the respective Constituent Assemblies of the two new countries.
• termination of British suzerainty over the princely states, with effect from 15 August 1947, and recognized the right of states to remain independent or accede to either dominion.
• abolition of the use of the title "Emperor of India" by the British monarch (this was subsequently executed by King George VI by royal proclamation on 22 June 1948).

1.4.12 Discuss the Independence Act of 1947

The legislation was formulated by the government of Prime Minister Clement Attlee and the Governor-General of India Lord Mountbatten, after representatives of the Indian National Congress, the Muslim League, and the Sikh community came to an agreement with Lord Mountbatten on what has come to be known as the 3 June Plan or Mountbatten Plan. This plan was the last for independence.

Write down any two features of the Independence Act 1947?

1. Sub-continent would be divided into two dominion states like India and Pakistan.
2. The Act of India 1935 remained in force until both, countries drafted their own constitution.
3. The princely states would have the option to join one or the other country.
4. British Crown would nominate one Governor-General each for country. Nevertheless, this post could also, be given to one person.
5. The Borders would be marked according to the Boundary Commission.

Also, Read Other Pakistan Studies Topics:

• Pakistan's Ideology and Its Historical Background
• Administrative Structure Of Pakistan
• Culture Of Pakistan
• Constitutional Development in Pakistan
• National Integration and Prosperity
• Foreign Policy of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan
• Economic Planning and Development in the Islamic Republic of Pakistan
• Boundary Commission or Radcliff Award