Foreign Policy of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan

7.1.1 Explain the factors that are responsible for shaping Pakistan’s foreign policy (i.e. determinants of Pakistan’s foreign policy);

Like the foreign policy of every other country, Pakistan’s foreign policy has been determined by various factors such as national interest, geopolitical compulsions, external environment, domestic setting and pressures, dreams and images of policymakers, personality, emotions, beliefs, and motives of leaders and national traditions. The most important factor of Pakistan’s foreign policy is “National Interest” which is considered as the long-term and self-interest-based planning to achieve economic and political goals within the region.

Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah, in Feb 1948, when said: “Our foreign policy is one of friendliness and goodwill towards all the nations of the world. We do not cherish aggressive designs against any country or nation. We believe in the principle of honesty and fair play in national and international dealings and are prepared to make our utmost contribution to the promotion of peace and prosperity among the nations of the world. Pakistan will never be found lacking in extending its material and moral support to the oppressed and suppressed peoples of the world and in upholding the principles of the United Nations charter”.

“In International Relations, There is no permanent friend and enemy but the preference is given only to the national interest of any state from its foreign policy on the base of National Security and Interest”. These are the elements which generate and determine foreign policy and its direction. The main objectives and determinants of Pakistan’s foreign policy are discussed as under:

The following are the factors of foreign policy.

1. National Security: Internal and external security is the most important factor in Pakistan’s foreign policy. Historian Paul Kennedy named Pakistan as one of the nine pivotal states whose future evolution would not only determine the fate of their region but also affect international stability. Pakistan has developed as a principal actor and a vital personality of its own. So, it is supposed to secure and protect its all vital interests, at all costs.
2. Financial Factor: At her very birth, economically and financially, Pakistan was a weak country. The hostility of the Indian National Congress to Pakistan had destroyed any basis of cooperation between India and Pakistan. Efforts were made by the Indian government to strangulate Pakistan through disputes over cash balances, defence stores, Kashmir and canal water.
3. Ideological Factor: Pakistan is an ideological state and its foreign policy is based upon the ideology of Pakistan or Islam. Foreign policy is meant to protect the ideology. The stability of Pakistan is also dependent upon ideology. So it has been one of the major determinants of Pakistan’s foreign policy to develop close relations with Muslim countries. The establishment of a brotherly relationship with Islamic countries and raising voices for the promotion of solidarity of Islamic brotherhood in regional and international forums is the cornerstone of Pakistan’s foreign policy
4. Historical and Psychological factors: The Pakistani nation has faced bitter experiences in the history of the subcontinent. The Hindus left no stone unturned to curb and crush the political, economic, social and religious rights of Muslims which paved the way for the demand for partition of the subcontinent for a separate homeland for Indian Muslims. The history of Pakistan-India relations is a witness to the fact that India has not reconciled to the fact that Pakistan is a sovereign state.
5. Unity of the Islamic world: Pakistan is a supporter of the unity of the Islamic world. Pakistan has always tried to resolve the conflicts among Muslim countries and played an important role in the Iraq war, the Kuwait invasion of Iraq, Palestine's liberation, Afghanistan’s liberation and the Iran-Saudi Cold War. Pakistan has provided Muslim countries of Central Asia a platform to resolve their economic problems by establishing the Economic Cooperation Organization.
6. Good relations with neighbour countries: No country can change its neighbours. Pakistan wants to establish good relations with all its neighbours including Afghanistan and India.
7. Establishment of Peace.
8. Support the right to self-determination.
9. Cooperation with UNO.
10. Independent and neutral policy.

7.1.2 Discuss the geostrategic importance of the location of Pakistan;

Geo-Strategic Significance of Pakistan:

Synopsis:

1. Introduction

2. Pakistan's geographical location

3. Strategic significance:

a) - The proximity of great powers

b) - Gateway to Central Asia- oil and energy game

c) - Significance as a transit economy

d) - Significance as an important link in the chain of Muslim countries

e) - Only Muslim countries have nuclear capability

4. Conclusions/ Analysis

1- INTRODUCTION:

Pakistan is located in a region that has a great political, economic and strategic location. It has been a hub of activities of great powers for the last 20 years. It has witnessed the intervention of three great powers i-e Britain, the USSR, and the USA. Its significance was further enhanced during the Cold War when it became an ally of the US policy of containment of the USSR and now the post-Cold War era has witnessed its significance, particularly after the events of 9/11.

2- PAKISTAN'S GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION:

• Location: Southern Asia lies between 24 and 36.75 northern latitudes and between 61 and 7505 eastern longitudes.
• Area: 7, 96000 sq. km.
• Towards the north apart from the state of Kashmir is China. It shares a 400 km long border with China.
• Towards north Tajikistan though no border but a narrow strip as the Wakhan strip separates the two.
• Towards the east, the Punjab-Rajasthan borders which are 1650 km long
• Towards the west, Afghanistan and Durand line of 2250 km.
• Towards the south, the Arabian and Indian sea. The coastal belt is about 700 km.
• Pakistan's significance is enhanced as it lies near the Persian Gulf where 65% of the world’s oil is produced.

3- STRATEGIC SIGNIFICANCE:

a) The proximity of great powers:

Pakistan is located at the junction of great powers. In its neighbour, one world power Russia and the other emerging power china lie. Any alliance among world powers enhances its significance. This factor has been utilized by Pakistan after 9/11. Security and business are the two main US interests in the region while Pakistan is playing a front-line role in the war against terrorism. Apart from this US's interest in the region is to contain the growing China, nuclear Iran, and terrorist Afghanistan and to benefit from the market of India. Today the political scenario of the region is tinged with preemption policy and the US invasion of Iraq and Afghanistan. Iran’s nuclear program and India’s geopolitical muscles (new strategic deal with the US) to gain hegemony and counter the rise of China. Which has earned all the qualities to change the unipolar world into a bipolar world? In all these issues, Pakistan is directly or indirectly involved, especially after al-Qaeda operations. The American think tank has repeatedly accepted that the war against terrorism could never be won without the help of Pakistan. Pakistan has vigorously fought and an ongoing operation in Waziristan is also targeting the suspected Taliban in the bordering area.

b) Gateway to central Asia-(oil and energy game):

Central Asia is the centre stage of the new Great Games. Western quest for resources- oil and energy resources in Central Asia. After the USSR's decline, a new quest started which is manifested by the politics of oil. Pakistan is located very close to oil-rich Middle Eastern countries. The belt started in Iran and extended to Saudi Arabia. Thus, Pakistan can influence the shipment of oil. Iran is struggling to export its surplus gas and oil to eastern countries, Qatar, Pakistan and Turkmenistan pipeline projects highlight the position.

In the energy-scarce world, Pakistan is located in the hub of energy-rich countries Iran and Afghanistan: both are energy abundant while India and China are lacking. China finds a way to the Indian Ocean and the Arabian Sea through the Karakoram Highway.

c) Significance as a Transit economy:

Pakistan has the potential to develop a transit economy on account is its strategic location, landlocked Afghanistan now in the phase of reconstruction finds its way through Pakistan. China with its fastest economic growth rate of 9% is developing southern provinces because its own part is 4500 km away from Sinkiang but Gwader is 2500 km away. Moreover, Pakistan offers central Asian regions the shortest route of 2600 km compared to Iran's 4500 km or Turkey's 5000 km. Gwadar port with its deep waters attracts the trade ships of China, CAR and Southeast Asian countries., also the coastal belt of Balochistan can provide an outlet to China’s western provinces to have access to Middle Eastern markets with the development of coastal highways and motorways.

d) An important link in the chain of Muslim countries:

If we look at the map of Muslim countries, Pakistan occupies a central location. Towards the west of Iran, china extends to North Africa. Thus it can actively participate in the activities of Muslim world-economic development, transport of resources and above all combat terrorism.

e) Only a Muslim country with nuclear capability:

In the region, Pakistan is the only Muslim country having nuclear capability which has a great influence on the political, and socio-economic activities in the region and the maintenance of the status quo in the region.

4- CONCLUSION / ANALYSIS:

Geostrategic means the importance of a country or a region to its geographical location. Stephen Cohn describes this importance “While history has been unkind to Pakistan, its geography has been its greatest benefit.”

Pakistan is a junction of South Asia, west Asia and Central Asia; away from resource-efficient countries to resource-deficient countries. The world is facing energy crises and terrorism. Pakistan is a route for transportation and a front-line state against terrorism. Moreover, Pakistan has been traditionally allying with the emerging economic giant; china. So in the vague of any change in world politics, Pakistan’s geo-strategic significance would further be enhanced.

7.2.1 Discuss the foreign policy of Pakistan in the given periods; 

1947-52: Exploration and Friendship with all (Political attitude of Pakistan towards Afghanistan, Iran, China, India, USA and USSR);

Relations with India:

The early years of independence were dominated by Pakistan's problems with India on the one hand, and the efforts to introduce the new state to the world community on the other. The problems it developed with India in the immediate aftermath of independence left an indelible impact on its foreign policy and built hostility and distrust in Pakistan-India relations. Most of these problems were the product of the partition process, as set out in the 3rd June 1947 Plan and the Indian Independence Act, of July 1947. These included inter alia, the division of the funds and other assets of the British Indian government, including arms, equipment and stores of the British Indian military; the large-scale killing of people at the time of independence and the subsequent communal riots; the religious minorities in the two states; the disposal of evacuee property; the river-water dispute; and bilateral trade. These disputes were coupled with controversies about the accession of the princely states of Junagadh, Hyderabad, and Jammu and Kashmir, and the outbreak of the first Kashmir war (1947-48). 

The ill-will generated by these problems was reinforced by the concentration of Indian troops on the border in Punjab in 1950-51 when an armed conflict was narrowly averted. On top of this were the statements of several Indian leaders, including those belonging to the ruling Congress party, regretting the establishment of Pakistan; some even talked about the reunification of India and Pakistan. Pakistan’s security concerns were Afghanistan's irredentist claims on Pakistani territory. Refusing to recognize Pakistan's sovereignty over North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) and Baluchistan, the Afghanistan government made divergent claims on these provinces, which ranged from a demand for the right of self-determination for Pushtuns/Pathans living in Pakistan to an establishment of an independent state comprising NWFP, and Baluchistan, to the incorporation of parts of these, provinces into Afghanistan. India endorsed Afghanistan’s, irredentist claims on Pakistan, and, in the mid-1950s, the Soviet Union extended similar support to Afghanistan. So India left no stone unturned to destabilize Pakistan at its very inception.

Relations with Afghanistan:

What compounded Pakistan's security concerns were Afghanistan's irredentist claims on Pakistani territory. Refusing to recognize Pakistan's sovereignty over North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) and Baluchistan, the Afghanistan government made divergent claims on these provinces, which ranged from a demand for the right of self-determination for Pushtuns/Pathans living in Pakistan to an establishment of an independent state comprising NWFP and Baluchistan to the incorporation of parts of these provinces into Afghanistan. India endorsed Afghanistan's irredentist claims on Pakistan, and, in the mid-1950s, the Soviet Union extended similar support to Afghanistan in retaliation to Pakistan's participation in U.S.-sponsored defence pacts. 

Pakistan’s policymakers felt threatened by the spectre of Soviet-backed Indo-Afghan military pressure, if not a full-fledged attack on its western and eastern borders. Security against such potential threats emerged as the cardinal concern of Pakistan. The security imperatives led the policymakers to pay special attention to the reorganization of the armed forces that Pakistan inherited after the division of the British Indian military. Almost all units of the armed forces were regrouped and a new organizational and administrative network had to be created for them. Pakistan purchased some weapons and military equipment from several Western states for the modernization of the three services of the armed forces. British officers were retained and some Pakistani officers were sent to Great Britain and other Commonwealth states for training.

However, the pace of modernization was rather slow until Pakistan joined the West-sponsored security pacts in 1954-55. Retaliation to Pakistan's participation in U.S.-sponsored defence pacts. Pakistan's policymakers felt threatened by the spectre of Soviet-backed Indo-Afghan military pressure, if not a full-fledged attack on its western and eastern borders. Security against such potential threats emerged as the cardinal concern of Pakistan.

Security Imperatives:

The security imperatives led the policymakers to pay special attention to the reorganization of the armed forces that Pakistan inherited after the division of the British Indian military. Almost all units of the armed forces were regrouped and a new organizational and administrative network had to be created for them. Pakistan purchased some weapons and military equipment from several Western states for the modernization of the three services of the armed forces. British officers were retained and some Pakistani officers were sent to Great Britain and other Commonwealth states for training. However, the pace of modernization was rather slow until Pakistan joined the West-sponsored security pacts in 1954-55.

Relations with the U.S.A. and USSR:

Pakistan started with an independent foreign policy and cultivated relations with The United States, the Soviet Union, and China. The United States felicitated the establishment of Pakistan and the ambassadorial level relations were resumed in February 1948. The Soviet attitude towards the establishment of Pakistan was indifferent. Though Pakistan and the Soviet Union agreed to establish diplomatic relations in April 1948, it was not until December 1949 that Pakistan's first ambassador resumed his assignment in Moscow. The Soviet ambassador took up his position in Karachi in March 1950. Pakistan was the first Muslim country to recognize the People's Republic of China in the first week of January 1950. The ambassadors of China and Pakistan presented their credentials in September and November 1951 respectively. An opportunity to change Soviet indifference knocked in June 1949, when the Soviet Union invited Pakistan's first Prime Minister, Liaquat Ali Khan, for an official visit. The invitation was accepted but the visit did not materialize. Instead, Liaquat Ali Khan visited the United States in May 1950, and his speeches and statements during this visit manifested a strong pro-West disposition of the Pakistani government. The Soviet leadership was unhappy over Liaquat Ali Khan's decision not to visit the Soviet Union. 

Pakistan started with an independent foreign policy and cultivated relations with the United States, the Soviet Union, and China. The United States felicitated the establishment of Pakistan and the ambassadorial level relations were resumed in February 1948. The Soviet attitude towards the establishment of Pakistan was indifferent. Though Pakistan and The Soviet Union agreed to establish diplomatic relations in April 1948, it was not until December 1949 that Pakistan's first ambassador resumed his assignment in Moscow. The Soviet ambassador took up his position in Karachi in March 1950. 

Pakistan was the first Muslim country to recognize the People's Republic of China in the first week of January 1950. The ambassadors of China and Pakistan presented their credentials in September and November 1951 respectively. An opportunity to change Soviet indifference knocked in June 1949, when the Soviet Union invited Pakistan's first Prime Minister, Liaquat Ali Khan, for an official visit. The invitation was accepted but the visit did not materialize. Instead, Liaquat Ali Khan visited the United States in May 1950, and his speeches and statements during this visit manifested a strong pro-West disposition of the Pakistani government. The Soviet leadership was unhappy over Liaquat Ali Khan's decision not to visit the Soviet Union.

Pakistan-China Relationship:

 Since establishing diplomatic ties in 1951, China and Pakistan have enjoyed a close and mutually beneficial relationship. Pakistan was one of the first countries to recognize the People’s Republic of China in 1950 and remained a steadfast ally during Beijing’s period of international isolation in the 1960s and early 1970s. China has long provided Pakistan with major military, technical, and economic assistance, including the transfer of sensitive nuclear technology and equipment. Some experts predict growing relations between the United States and rival India will ultimately prompt Pakistan to push for even closer ties with its longtime strategic security partner, China.

Pakistan-Iran Relationship: After Pakistan gained its independence in August 1947, Iran was one of the first countries to recognize its sovereign status. e. It established diplomatic relations with Pakistan in May 1948, and Pakistan’s Prime Minister Liaqat Ali Khan visited Iran in May 1949. The Shah of Iran was the first head of state to pay a State visit to Pakistan in March 1950 and in the same month, a Treaty of Friendship was signed. With the emergence of Pakistan as an independent State in 1947, India lost its territorial contiguity with Iran that it had shared for centuries and it could be said that Pakistan emerged not only geographically between Iran and India but also became one of the major determining factors in Iran-India relations.

1953-62: Alignment with the West (Military agreements, SEATO, CENTO, Mutual Defence Assistance Agreement 1954)

There was a time when the foreign policy of Pakistan was fully tilted towards the Western Block and it got the membership of the defence pacts under the American patronage. These defence pacts were aimed at saving the Middle East and Southeast Asia from Communist domination. However, the countries included in these pacts were considered to be the parasites of the American block. One of these pacts was the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization.

Primarily created to block further communist gains in Southeast Asia, SEATO is generally considered a failure because internal conflict and dispute hindered the general use of the SEATO military; however, SEATO-funded cultural and educational programs left long-standing effects in Southeast Asia. SEATO was dissolved on 30 June 1977 after multiple members lost interest and withdrew.

Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO), 1954 a briefing

Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO), an alliance organized (in 1954) under the Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty by representatives of Australia, France, Great Britain, New Zealand, Pakistan, the Philippines, Thailand, and the United States. Established under Western auspices after the French withdrawal from Indochina, SEATO was created to oppose further Communist gains in Southeast Asia. The treaty was supplemented by a Pacific Charter, affirming the rights of Asian and Pacific peoples to equality and self-determination and setting forth goals of economic, social, and cultural cooperation between the member countries. The civil and military organizations established under the treaty had their headquarters in Bangkok, Thailand. SEATO relied on the military forces of member nations and joint manoeuvres were held annually. SEATO’s principal role was to sanction the U.S. presence in Vietnam, although France and Pakistan withheld support. Unable to intervene in Laos or Vietnam due to its rule of unanimity, the future of the organization was in doubt by 1973, and SEATO was ultimately disbanded in 1977.

CENTO: Central Treaty Organization (CENTO) earlier Middle East Treaty Organization, or Baghdad Pact Organization Mutual Security Organization dating from 1955 to 1979 and contained Turkey, Iran, Pakistan, Iraq and Britain. Turkey and Iraq are founding initiators who laid the foundation of the Baghdad Pact for mutual defence and security that was signed on 26 February 1955. Turkey and Iraq invited Pakistan to join but Pakistan was not willing and not enthusiastic to do so without the participation of the United States. However, pressure from Britain and the United States was the adequate stimulus for Pakistan to sign the Baghdad Pact on 23 September 1955 along with Britain and Iran. The United States was unwilling due to the treaty in the incident of a war involving Israel and the Arab states. Although the U.S. functioned for the treaty as an unofficial observer, the United States signed individual agreements with each of the countries in this Pact.

Indeed, America actively contributed to the market conducted by the various countries of the pact, but the lack of official U.S. participation weakened the chances of attracting other countries. In 1958, Iraq faced a revolution which further caused the break up of this pact between Iraq and the other countries. The Baghdad Pact's original name was the Middle East Treaty Organization (METO) replaced by the name of the Central Treaty Organization (CENTO) after the withdrawal of Iraq. After the extraction of Iraq from the Baghdad Pact, CENTO moved its headquarters to Turkey (Ankara).

Like the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), CENTO tried to the nations to mutually collaborate and protect as well as non-intervention in each other’s internal affairs. Its goal was to seize the Soviet Union (USSR) by having a band of powerful states along the USSR’s South Western frontier. Similarly, it was known as the “Northern Tier” to prevent Soviet involvement in the Middle East. Unlike NATO, CENTO did not have a collective military command organization, and not many U.S. or UK military bases were established in respective member countries.

1963-71: Pakistan in search of new friends (Separation from the Western block, inclination towards USSR and China, China-Pakistan Border Agreement 1963, Tashkent Agreement 1965, Pakistan joined the RCD (later came to be known as ECO) in 1964);

Things changed in 1959, however, when Ayub Khan gave permission to the USA to use its Peshawar Air Base, he was deceived by the USA when it sent its spy plane from the Peshawar Base to the USSR without informing PAF authorities. The plane was shot down there by Russia and unfortunately, Pakistan was blamed for sending the plane since it was Pakistan’s soil from where it had come. This made Russia turn against Pakistan and eventually, the Soviets paid back their revenge on Pakistan in the 1971 Indo-Pak war. Before 1971 Pakistan tendered an apology and tried to establish good relations with Russia. The Soviet Union enjoyed relatively healthy and strong relations with Pakistan when it was under civilian control, but they went ultimately cold soon after the US-backed 1958 military coup although attempts to warm the relations were made after the 1965 Indo-Pakistan war.

9.2.1 Analyze the strength and issues of the relations between Pakistan and China.

China is the most trustworthy friend of Pakistan. A friend, who always stood beside Pakistan whenever needed. Pakistan has the strongest ties with the people as well as the government of China. China and Pakistan's relationship is based on strong strategic, economic and political foundations. With China China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) China has committed investment worth US $ 51 billion in Pakistan.

Strategically, the China-Pakistan relationship revolves around the common axis of their common enemy India. Pakistan’s foreign policy, as well as the security-strategic policy, is formulated with India at the centre stage. In that scenario, China’s economy, as well as strategic help to Pakistan, offers big leverage.

China requires Pakistan’s support to fight against terrorism, secessionist movements and extremism in its Xinjiang province which forms the border with Pakistan and Russia.

China and Pakistan enjoy robust defence relations as China is the largest defence partner of Pakistan. China has oftentimes provided financial and military aid to Pakistan to fight against terrorism. In the past, China has played an important role in the development of Pakistan’s nuclear infrastructure.

When it comes to economic, trade and commerce relations, China and Pakistan have concluded a free trade agreement. China is the biggest investor in Pakistan and with bilateral trade worth about US $ 9 Billion; it is also the largest trade partner of Pakistan.

Considering the present geopolitical landscape and fragile regional security scenario, the relationship between Pakistan and China is characterized by increasing convergence for cooperation in various fields such as strategic, military, multilateral forums, and economic and political. Hence shortly, there is a good chance that China-Pakistan's relationship will further strengthen.

9.2.2 Evaluate the strategic importance of the Pak-China relationship.

1. Strategic Importance of Pakistan Towards China: Strategic Importance of Pakistan’s location, A Gateway to Central Asia: Pakistan is in the middle of Asia and near countries rich in gas and oil resources. So it is always been a focused region of the Western quest for oil and energy. The proximity of great powers: US interest in the Asian region to contain growing China, nuclear Iran and emerging terrorism in Afghanistan.

China needs to collaborate with Pakistan to remain in power as an emerging superpower in future. US interest in India and the Indian lust for acquiring advanced weapons threatened Chinese security in the region.

To maintain the balance of power in the region, China supports Pakistan through Financial Aid and weapons/Ammunition. A stable and empowered Pakistan is in the interest of Emerging China.

9.2.3 Analyze the strength and issues of the relations between Pakistan and India.

Since the partition of the sub-continent in 1947, relations between Pakistan and India have been characterized by rivalry and suspicion. The animosity has its roots in religion and history and is epitomized by the long-running conflict over the state of Jammu and Kashmir.

Historical Background:

The Indian Subcontinent was partitioned into Hindu-dominated India and the newly created Muslim state of Pakistan after India's independence from Great Britain in 1947. Severe rioting and population movement ensued and an estimated half a million people were killed in communal violence. About a million people were left homeless. Since partition, the territory of Jammu and Kashmir has remained in dispute with Pakistan and India both holding sectors.

First Indo-Pakistan War 1947-49:

At the time of partition, the princely state of Kashmir, though ruled by a Hindu Maharaja, had an overwhelmingly Muslim population. When the Maharaja hesitated in acceding to either Pakistan or India in 1947, some of his Muslim subjects, aided by tribesmen from Pakistan, revolted in favour of joining Pakistan.

The first Indo-Pakistan war started after armed tribesmen from Pakistan's North-West Frontier Province invaded Kashmir in October 1947. Besieged both by a revolt in his state and by the invasion, the Maharaja requested armed assistance from the Government of India. In return he acceded to India, handling overpowers of defence, communication and foreign affairs. Both India and Pakistan agreed that the accession would be confirmed by a referendum once hostilities had ceased. In May 1948, the regular Pakistani army was called upon to protect Pakistan's borders. Fighting continued throughout the year between Pakistani irregular troops and the Indian army. The war ended on 1st January 1949 when a ceasefire was arranged by the United Nations which recommended that both India and Pakistan should adhere to their commitment to hold a referendum in the state. A ceasefire line was established where the two sides stopped fighting and a UN peacekeeping force was established. The referendum, however, has never been held.

1965 War:

In April 1965, a clash between border patrols erupted into fighting in the Rann of Kutch, a sparsely inhabited region along the southwestern Indo-Pakistan border. When the Indians withdrew, Pakistan claimed victory. Later full-scale hostilities erupted in September 1965, when India alleged that insurgents trained and supplied by Pakistan were operating in India-controlled Kashmir. Hostilities ceased three weeks later, following mediation efforts by the UN and interested countries. In January 1966, Indian and Pakistani representatives met in Tashkent, U.S.S.R., and agreed to attempt a peaceful settlement of Kashmir and their other differences.

1971 War Indo-Pakistani relations deteriorated again when civil war erupted in Pakistan, pitting the West Pakistan army against East Pakistanis demanding autonomy and independence. In December India invaded East Pakistan in support of the East Pakistani people. The Pakistani army surrendered at Dhaka and its army of more than 90,000 became Indian prisoners of war. East Pakistan became the independent country of Bangladesh on 6th December 1971.

Indian Troops and Siachen Glacier 1984:

India's nuclear test in 1974 generated great uncertainty in Pakistan and is generally acknowledged to have been the impetus for Pakistan's nuclear weapons development program. In 1983, the Pakistani and Indian governments accused each other of aiding separatists in their respective countries, i.e., Sikhs in India's Punjab state and Sindhis in Pakistan's Sindh province. In April 1984, tensions erupted after troops were deployed to the Siachen Glacier, a high-altitude desolate area close to the China border-left undemarcated by the cease-fire agreement (Karachi Agreement) signed by Pakistan and India in 1949.

Tensions diminished after Rajiv Gandhi became Prime Minister in November 1984 and after a group of Sikh hijackers was brought to trial by Pakistan in March 1985. In December 1985, President Zia and Prime Minister Gandhi pledged not to attack each other's nuclear facilities. In early 1986, the Indian and Pakistani governments began high-level talks to resolve the Siachen Glacier border dispute and improve trade.

Kashmir Insurgency 1990:

Bilateral tensions increased in early 1990 when Kashmiri militants began a campaign of violence against Indian Government authority in Jammu and Kashmir. Subsequent high-level bilateral meetings relieved the tensions between India and Pakistan, but relations worsened again after the destruction of the Ayodhya Masjid by Hindu extremists in December 1992 and terrorist bombings in Bombay in March 1993. Talks between the Foreign Secretaries of both countries in January 1994 resulted in a deadlock.

Diplomatic Push 1996-97:

In the last several years, the Indo-Pakistani relationship has veered sharply between rapprochement and conflict. After taking office in February 1997, Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif moved to resume official dialogue with India. Several meetings at the foreign secretary and Prime Ministerial level took place with positive atmospherics but little concrete progress. In a speech at the UN, Pakistani Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif offered to open talks on a non-aggression pact with India, proposing that both nations strike a deal to restrain their nuclear and missile capabilities.

Nuclear Rivalry 1998:

The arms race between the rivals escalated dramatically in the 1990s. In May 1998, India conducted underground nuclear tests in the western desert state of Rajasthan near the border with Pakistan. In response, Pakistan conducted six tests in Balochistan. In the same year, Pakistan tested its longest-range missile, the 1,500 km (932 miles) Ghauri missile, named after the 12th-century Muslim warrior who conquered part of India. Both sides were heavily criticized by the international community for the tests as fears of a nuclear confrontation grew.

The United States ordered sanctions against both countries, freezing more than $20bn of aid, loans and trade. Japan ordered a block on about $1bn of aid loans. Several European countries followed suit, and the G-8 governments imposed a ban on non-humanitarian loans to India and Pakistan. The UN Security Council condemned India and Pakistan for carrying out nuclear tests and urged the two nations to stop all nuclear weapons programmes.

Indian Prime Minister Atal Vajpayee's Visit to Pakistan in 1999:

The relationship improved markedly when Indian Prime Minister Vajpayee travelled to Lahore for a summit with Sharif in February 1999. There was considerable hope that the meeting could lead to a breakthrough. They signed the Lahore accord pledging again to "intensify their efforts to resolve all issues, including the issue of Jammu and Kashmir."

Kargil Conflict 1999: Unfortunately, in May 1999 India launched air strikes against Pakistani-backed forces that had infiltrated into the mountains in Indian-administrated Kashmir, north of Kargil. Pakistan responded by occupying positions on the Indian side of the Line of Control in the remote, mountainous area of Kashmir near Kargil threatening the ability of India to supply its forces on Siachen Glacier. By early summer, serious fighting flared in the Kargil sector. The infiltrators withdrew following a meeting between Prime Minister Sharif and President Bill Clinton in July. Relations between India and Pakistan have since been particularly strained, especially since the October 12, 1999 coup in Islamabad.

The Brink of War 2001:

Tension along the ceasefire line continued. The worst fighting for more than a year broke out in October as India, which continued to condemn Pakistan for cross-border terrorism, started shelling Pakistani military positions. October saw a devastating attack on the Kashmiri assembly in Srinagar in which 38 people were killed. After the attack, the Chief Minister of Indian-administrated Kashmir, Farooque Abdullah called on the Indian Government to launch a war against militant training camps across the border in Pakistan.

On 13th December, an armed attack on the Indian Parliament in Delhi left 14 people dead. India again blamed Pakistani-backed Kashmiri militants. The attack led to a dramatic build-up of troops along the Indo-Pakistan border, and military exchanges and raised fears of a wider conflict. Rail and bus services between the two countries were also blocked.

Relaxation of Tension 2003: Relaxation of tension began in 2003 when then-Indian Prime Minister Atal Behari Vajpayee called for a dialogue. Rail and bus services between the two countries resumed, and the two countries agreed to a ceasefire in Kashmir.

Summit Talks 2004: The twelfth SAARC Summit was held in Islamabad in January 2004. On this occasion, President Parvez Musharraf met Indian Prime Minister Atal Behari Vajpayee on 5th January 2004. In these summit talks, India and Pakistan resumed comprehensive discussions with an agenda that included the Kashmir problem, confidence-building measures, and ways to provide security against terrorism.

No War Pact 2004: 

These comprehensive consultations have steadily built up trust, resulting in agreements to continue the suspension of nuclear tests, to give prior notification of missile tests, and to seek a peaceful resolution to the Kashmir problem. On June 20, 2004, both countries signed the "No War The Pact" and agreed to extend a nuclear testing ban and to set up a hotline between their foreign secretaries aimed at preventing misunderstandings that might lead to a nuclear war.

Musharraf's Unofficial Visit to India 2005:

In April 2005 President Parvez Musharraf and Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh agreed on various new confidence-building measures between the two nations. Their talks, held during Mr Musharraf's unofficial visit to India on April 17, produced an agreement, for example, on the passage of trucks for commercial purposes over Kashmir's Line of Control, or ceasefire line. This is expected to greatly help ease tensions between the countries.

The improvement of relations between India and Pakistan still involves uncertain factors such as the activities of Islamic extremists, but efforts should be stepped up so that the latest summit can serve as a favourable tailwind for accelerating the thaw between the two nations.

Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s Hard Stance against Pakistan;

An interesting feature of the difficult Pakistan-India relationship is that there is a wide discrepancy in the informal and personal interaction between Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif and Prime Minister Narendra Modi and the policies of their governments. The goodwill reflected in the personal interaction between the two Prime Ministers has not played any moderating role in the troubled relations between the two governments.

The newly elected government in Pakistan under Prime Minister Imran Khan and Military Leadership is willing to restart dialogues with India and to find a strong and prolonged solution to issues b/w both countries. In this regard, the Interior Ministry level meeting was to be held in the US but at the very eleventh hour, the Indian minister refused to commit a meeting by alleging Pakistan of Trespassing and sponsoring terrorism. It seems that India is not willing to engage with Pakistan to bring peace b/w both countries.

India’s reaction is the consequence of Pakistan’s raising its voice against the Indian brutality in Kashmir.

9.2.4 Evaluate the future prospects of good neighbourly relations with India.

The core issue between India and Pakistan is the “Kashmir Issue”.

Also, Read Other Pakistan Studies Topics:

• Pakistan's Ideology and Its Historical Background
• Administrative Structure Of Pakistan
• Culture Of Pakistan
• Constitutional Development in Pakistan
• National Integration and Prosperity
• Foreign Policy of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan
• Economic Planning and Development in the Islamic Republic of Pakistan
• Boundary Commission or Radcliff Award